Evidence-Based Approaches to Designing Effective Career and Technical Education Programs

This research brief synthesizes decades of evidence to guide district and school leaders on how to design effective Career and Technical Education (CTE) programs that expand access and improve student outcomes. It highlights that students who complete structured, multi-course CTE pathways see stronger graduation, earnings, and postsecondary outcomes than those who only take standalone courses. High-quality features such as integrated academics, structured work-based learning, and strong partnerships with employers and colleges are critical drivers of impact. The brief also emphasizes that effective strategies, such as exploratory opportunities before pathway selection, hiring teachers with industry experience, and building intentional partnerships, can broaden access, while rigid tracking, weak work-based learning, and out-of-field teaching risk undermining quality. By implementing evidence-based design principles, education leaders can ensure CTE fulfills its promise as a pathway to both higher education and meaningful careers.

We gratefully acknowledge the EdResearch for Action Advisory Board members—Maxwell Akuamoah-Boateng, Shanita Glaspie, Corey Jackson, Jeremy Jones, Carol Kelley, Annette Ledesma, Shanna Ricketts, Reyna Sotelo, Karissa Sullivan—whose expertise as education leaders brought critical, practice-driven insights to guide this brief.

Hannah C. Kistler | University at Albany

Shaun M. Dougherty | Boston College

September 2025 | Brief No. 35

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Central Question

What are the common components of effective Career and Technical Education (CTE) programs, and how can school and district leaders ensure access and outcomes?

Key Insights

Evidence-Based Practices

  • Students who complete at least three aligned courses in a CTE career cluster experience stronger outcomes than those who take stand-alone courses. 
  • Work-based learning (WBL) is typically a component of effective CTE models. The most impactful WBL programs are structured, skill-building, and aligned to students’ interests and career goals.
  • Partnerships with employers and with colleges strengthen the alignment between CTE programs and students’ college and career opportunities, which improves students’ understanding of the real expectations of the field.
  • CTE teachers with industry experience or strong subject-matter test scores (even without traditional certification) tend to be especially effective.
  • Providing students with the opportunity to explore multiple CTE pathways before choosing one may help reduce misplacement and boost engagement and retention.
  • Practices such as multilingual outreach, personalized career advising, barrier-free scheduling, equity-focused data use, and fair admissions processes are likely to make a meaningful impact in expanding access to and success in high-quality CTE pathways, particularly for students who have been historically underrepresented.

More To Learn

  • Industry-recognized credentials (IRCs) have the potential to help students signal job readiness, build confidence, and engage more deeply in school, but their impact depends heavily on how they are selected, valued, and integrated into programs.

Practices to Avoid

  • Rigid tracking systems and prerequisites that steer students into CTE pathways based on early academic performance can reinforce existing inequities by limiting access to rigorous coursework and postsecondary options.
  • Work-based learning (WBL) programs that are brief or unstructured may fail to engage students, build meaningful skills, or benefit employers.
  • Staffing CTE programs with teachers who lack formal training or experience in the subject area (known as teaching “out of field”) can compromise program quality and student outcomes.

Breaking Down the Issue

Key Terms:
  • CTE concentrator- A student who has completed at least two CTE courses within the same program of study or career pathway. This designation indicates sustained engagement in a specific CTE program.
  • Career clusters- Broad categories of related jobs and industries that share common skills and knowledge. High school CTE courses are organized into these clusters, like Health Science, so students can explore a field of interest.
  • Program of study– A multi-course sequence within a career cluster that prepares students for specific careers or postsecondary pathways. For example, within the Health Science cluster, a program of study might be Nursing, Biomedical Science, or Sports Medicine.
  • Work-based learning (WBL)-. The U.S. Department of Education defines three key components of WBL: 1) alignment of classroom and workplace learning; 2) application of academic, technical, and employability skills in a work-based setting; and 3) support from classroom or workplace mentors.
  • Industry-recognized credentials (IRCs)- Recognized qualifications that are typically aligned with industry standards and are designed to demonstrate to employers that students possess job-relevant skills.
What is CTE, and why does it matter now?

Career and Technical Education (CTE) is redefining what it means to be ready for life after high school. By blending academics with hands-on training, CTE lets students explore fields like health care, IT, construction, and business while they’re still in high school. Instead of choosing between “college prep” and “career prep,” CTE opens both doors.

Interest in CTE has surged: today, over 98% of public school districts report offering CTE programs to high school students. Districts provide those programs in different ways, for example, through their own district’s schools, regional CTE centers or consortia, partnerships with community and four-year colleges, or by sending students to neighboring districts (see Figure 1 for more detail on CTE models).

This expansion reflects both rising college costs and the shifting demands of the labor market, with federal reforms like the Perkins V Act and state accountability systems elevating CTE alongside traditional academics. Families and policymakers alike see it as a flexible pathway to higher education, well-paying jobs, or both.


CTE has evolved from its roots in vocational education, which was often stigmatized and used to track marginalized students into narrow career paths. The 2006 Perkins Act reauthorization marked a shift, rebranding the field and broadening it to include high-growth areas like IT, engineering, education, and health care. Today, CTE is designed for all students and acknowledges that nearly every career will require some form of training beyond high school.

Although 85% of U.S. high school graduates have taken at least one CTE course, these programs vary widely in structure and intensity. CTE can range from individual elective classes within a traditional high school to full-time career academies that shape a student’s high school experience.

Figure 1: Common CTE models

Note: These categories aren’t mutually exclusive. A single district may offer CTE programs in multiple locations.

ModelStructureKey FeaturesPrevalenceExample Locations
Part-Time Technical CentersStudents split time between their home high school and a technical centerCenters are equipped with industry-standard tools, labs, and technologies; extended hands-on training blocks (2–3 hrs); often serve students from multiple high schools or districts; academic instruction stays at the home school43% of districts with CTE programs use this model(2017)Pennsylvania Area Technical Centers
CTE-Dedicated SchoolsFull-time, standalone high schools with a strong emphasis on CTEStructured multi-course CTE pathways; integrated academic + career instruction; extensive WBL; greater program coherence and intensity12% of  districts with CTE programs use this model(2017)Connecticut Technical High School System (CTHSS)
Career AcademiesSmall learning communities within high schoolsStudents grouped into cohorts for core and CTE classes; interdisciplinary teacher teams; career-themed curriculum; embedded work-based learning (WBL)24% of public high schools (2008)Wake County, Akron Public Schools, Metro Nashville Public Schools, and Pasadena Unified School District
Early College/ Dual EnrollmentCombined high school and college coursework (Grades 9–14)Students work towards a HS diploma and college credit; career-aligned courses in high-wage fields; strong high school–college partnershipsLimited but growingNYC P-TECH and North Carolina Career and College Promise Dual Enrollment Program
CTE Electives in Comprehensive SchoolsStandalone CTE courses are offered as electives in traditional schoolsStudents take individual CTE courses, usually as electives, alongside their required academic coursework. Limited curriculum alignment or integration with academics; limited WBL and support structures; highly variable in quality and labor market relevance83% of districts with CTE programs use this modelMost U.S. school districts with CTE

Well-designed CTE programs promote student engagement and attendance, as well as high school graduation and later employment, especially among disadvantaged student groups.

Some CTE clusters lead more directly to workforce entry, while others support college enrollment. Students in clusters aligned with strong college pipelines (e.g., Health Science and STEM) are more likely to enroll in and complete college. Clusters with direct-to-workforce orientations (e.g., Construction) see lower college enrollment but higher immediate earnings.

  • Architecture & Construction and Manufacturing clusters raised early-career earnings, especially for male students. 
  • Women who entered male-dominated fields like construction and manufacturing earned equal or greater within-industry earnings than men, suggesting high potential returns, despite lower overall industry entry rates.
  • In contrast, clusters like Business, Marketing, and Hospitality yielded weaker or no gains, likely due to less specialized training or excess supply of labor. 
  • Across clusters, students who work in industries aligned with their CTE training often see the largest earnings benefits.

CTE participation and career cluster enrollment vary significantly by race, gender, and income. Black and Latino students are overrepresented in lower-earning clusters and underrepresented in high-wage clusters.

  • National data show that white students and male students take more CTE credits than their peers who are students of color and female. In Michigan, students from low-income backgrounds are also less likely to participate in CTE than their more affluent counterparts. Further evidence from a study of four states reveals that differences in participation and concentration are driven in large part by differences across schools, where students of color attend schools that are less likely to offer opportunities to concentrate in CTE.    
  • In South Carolina, Black and Latino students are concentrated in lower-wage fields like hospitality but underrepresented in high-wage areas like STEM.
  • Gender gaps also mirror workforce patterns: female students are more likely to enroll in Education, Health Science, and Human Services, while male students are more likely to enroll in manual trades and STEM. For example, in Illinois, 64% of STEM CTE students are male.

The main barriers to equitable access to high-quality CTE programs are:

  • Unequal program availability: Students have varying levels of access to CTE programs depending on their school. These differences help to explain the disparities in participation across clusters by race, ethnicity, and income.
  • Lack of early exposure and opportunities for exploration: Many students lack access to early information and career exploration opportunities needed to make informed decisions about CTE programs. Most CTE programs are not designed to allow students to explore options before committing to year-long courses.
  • Barriers to high-quality work-based learning: Meaningful work-based learning requires strong employer partnerships, which are more difficult to establish and maintain in under-resourced districts.
  • Shortages of qualified CTE instructors: Hiring instructors with industry experience is challenging in high-demand fields due to certification barriers and low salaries. Administrators report having difficulty filling positions in CTE subjects 57% of the time, compared to only 39% for academic subjects.

Evidence-Based Practices

The strongest evidence of CTE’s impact comes from CTE-dedicated models studied using causal methods. Since most students experience CTE as electives in comprehensive high schools, this section identifies key features from effective CTE-dedicated models that can be integrated into broader settings. The practices below are likely drivers of effectiveness for impactful CTE programs.

Students who complete at least three aligned courses in a CTE program of study experience stronger outcomes than those who take stand-alone courses.

  • CTE concentrators (students who complete two or more courses in the same career cluster) consistently experience stronger and more positive outcomes than students who take just one CTE course. One study compared outcomes for CTE concentrators against two groups: (1) students with no CTE courses and (2) students who took only one CTE course. The study found that, across most career clusters, concentrators saw higher cumulative earnings than both non-CTE students and one-course students. For example, by year seven after high school, non-college concentrators earned over $6,000 more annually than comparable peers who also did not attend college but did not concentrate in CTE.
  • In Massachusetts, CTE concentrators were more likely to finish high school, attend and complete a two-year college program, and earn more right after graduation compared to those who participated in CTE without concentrating.
  • States can provide guidance to schools and districts about CTE pathways. Tennessee, for example, has built pathways that outline four-year sequences. Although the exact number of courses students need to take in a cluster for it to show positive results is unknown, three or more courses are present in most successful models.

Work-based learning (WBL) is typically a component of effective CTE models. The most impactful WBL programs are structured, skill-building, and aligned to students’ interests and career goals.

  • Research from Massachusetts showed that participants in programs that offered work-based learning (WBL) as a core component of the CTE program had better attendance in 9th grade and higher graduation rates.
  • Programming that includes career-themed pathways and WBL may help to promote positive student outcomes. For example, students who participated in Linked Learning in California were more likely to graduate from high school than their peers who did not participate.
  • Research from Connecticut found positive effects of CTE participation on earnings and that, for male students in Construction and Manufacturing, about one-third of the increase in earnings can be explained by hands-on, industry-specific experience through WBL. In other words, this real-world exposure helps students build technical skills and networks that facilitate initial job placement and career advancement.
  • Although we don’t have causal evidence on the duration of WBL programs that is needed to be effective and quality is certainly important, Connecticut Technical Education and Career System (CTECS)’s WBL manual describes internships with a “typical duration of three to nine months” (part-time), tied to intentional learning goals, with up to 21 school hours/week and 38 hours per 9-day cycle for seniors.
  • Strong WBL programs involve meaningful tasks, mentoring, and clear learning objectives. They also often include partnerships with employers, who inform the needs for equipment, staffing, and program design. For examples on how other states are designing high-quality WBL programs, see here.
  • For guidance around implementing successful WBL programs, see toolkits herehere, and here.

Partnerships with employers and with colleges strengthen the alignment between CTE programs and students’ college and career opportunities, which improves students’ understanding of the real expectations of the field.

CTE teachers with industry experience or strong subject-matter test scores (even without traditional certification) tend to be especially effective.

  • In many states, CTE teachers can enter the teaching profession through alternative pathways that count previous industry experience in place of traditional teacher training. A study in Washington found that CTE teachers who enter through Business & Industry (B&I) pathways (bringing substantial real-world work experience but not necessarily a college degree) were at least as effective, and often more effective, than traditionally certified CTE teachers. Students taught by B&I teachers showed better non-test outcomes, including higher attendance, fewer disciplinary incidents, stronger GPAs, and higher on-time graduation rates. These benefits were especially pronounced for students with disabilities. This suggests that industry experience may be more effective than formal academic preparation for improving real-world academic and behavioral outcomes.
  • In Massachusetts, students earned more after graduation when taught by teachers who scored well on subject-specific licensure exams, especially the hands-on performance test that assesses technical skills. Those with top-scoring teachers earned about $900 more five years out. This highlights the importance of prioritizing practical experience in state investments, such as Perkins V.
  • CTE teachers with industry experience in high-growth, high-wage industries, such as health sciences and IT, can be difficult to recruit and retain. To address this, leaders can create pathways into teaching for industry experts. For example, encouraging industry professionals to take on part-time teaching roles can both help fill vacancies and serve as a stepping stone into education.

Providing students with the opportunity to explore multiple CTE pathways before choosing one may help reduce misplacement and boost engagement and retention.

  • In many of the CTE models with causal evidence of impacts (such as in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York City), students have the opportunity to explore their options in their 9th-grade year before selecting a CTE program. 
  • For example, in Massachusetts, many CTE schools offer an opportunity in which 9th-grade students rotate through each of the various CTE programs within their school on a schedule. This allows students to learn about each pathway before selecting one, helping them to make more informed decisions. 
  • Schools can offer opportunities for students to explore CTE areas before committing, such as offering 9th graders a course that allows them to explore three to six CTE areas before selecting the area they want to pursue.

Practices such as multilingual outreach, personalized career advising, barrier-free scheduling, equity-focused data use, and fair admissions processes are likely to make a meaningful impact in expanding access to and success in high-quality CTE pathways, particularly for students who have been historically underrepresented.

Note: These practices offer descriptive examples of how schools can broaden access to high-value pathways, but they have not been evaluated using causal methods, so they warrant further study and thoughtful implementation.

More to Learn

Industry-recognized credentials (IRCs) have the potential to help students signal job readiness, build confidence, and engage more deeply in school, but their impact depends heavily on how they are selected, valued, and integrated into programs.

  • Many students earn IRCs in fields that are not strongly linked to local labor market needs, meaning those credentials may have limited value in helping them secure well-paying jobs. 
  • A recent descriptive study found that IRCs don’t seem to make much difference in whether students get a job right after high school. However, IRCs do matter for earnings. For students who are employed, earning an IRC is associated with about a 9% increase in first-year annual earnings overall, with the largest gains for students who don’t attend college right away (~12.6% higher earnings). Specific fields, like cosmetology, manufacturing, transportation, public safety, and health science, show the strongest wage boosts, especially for students who do not attend college or only attend part-time.
  • In Texas and Florida, studies found that while credentials can boost graduation rates, widely earned ones, like digital literacy, often lack employer recognition and show no clear impact on earnings or college enrollment. 
  • States can improve credential value by aligning offerings with labor market demand and updating approved credential lists based on employer input and wage data, an approach used in states like Texas and Louisiana.
  • More causal studies are needed to understand which credentials lead to sustained success in postsecondary education and the labor market.

Note: There are features of CTE-dedicated high schools that likely contribute to effectiveness, but have not been studied in isolation using causal methods. These include cohort-based structures, greater coordination between CTE and core academic teachers, student organizations and affinity groups, higher teacher credentialing standards, and targeted funding and oversight.

Practices to Avoid

Rigid tracking systems and prerequisites that steer students into CTE pathways based on early academic performance can reinforce existing inequities by limiting access to rigorous coursework and postsecondary options.

Work-based learning (WBL) programs that are brief or unstructured may fail to engage students, build meaningful skills, or benefit employers.

  • While WBL is a key component of high-quality CTE and is mandated under the federal Perkins Act, not all WBL experiences are equally meaningful. Programs like one-day job shadows, occasional guest speaker visits, workplace tours, or infrequent, loosely supervised internships may offer exposure to industries, but they generally lack ongoing feedback, skill-building benchmarks, alignment with classroom content, or structured mentors and performance assessments.
  • WBL is likely more effective when students are matched with placements that align with their interests and given meaningful tasks and mentoring.

Staffing CTE programs with teachers who lack formal training or experience in the subject area (known as teaching “out of field”) can compromise program quality and student outcomes.

  • Teachers teaching “out-of-field” are generally less effective than their in-field peers, and this also appears to be the case for CTE teachers. For example, assigning a general science teacher without a computer science background to lead a computer science course likely results in weaker instruction and a less engaging experience for students.
  • Instead, schools can invest in teacher capacity by supporting certification and professional development in CTE content areas, recruiting industry professionals (even part-time), and partnering with postsecondary or workforce organizations.

This EdResearch for Action Project brief is a collaboration among:

Funding for this research was provided by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. The findings and conclusions contained within are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect positions or policies of the foundation.

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